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Algeria Algeria
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Algeria
Algeria (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā’ir, Berber: Dzayer, French: Algérie), officially the People's
Democratic Republic of Algeria (also formally referred to as the Democratic
and Popular Republic of Algeria),[10][11][12][13] is a country in North Africa. In terms of land area, it is
the largest country on the Mediterranean Sea, the second largest on
the African continent[14] after Sudan,
and the eleventh-largest country in the world.[15]
Algeria
is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by
Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali,
in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost
2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated
population of about 35.7 million (2010).[16] The capital of Algeria is Algiers.
Algeria is a member of the Arab League, United Nations, African Union, and OPEC.
It is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
Etymology
The name of the country is
derived from the city of Algiers. A possible
etymology links the city name to الجزائر Al-jazā’ir, a truncated form of the city's older name of جزائر بني
مازغان jazā’ir banī mazghanā, the Arabic for "the
islands of Mazghanna", as used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.
In classical times northern Algeria was known as Numidia, which included parts of modern day
western Tunisia and eastern Morocco.
History
Main article: History of Algeria
Ancient
history
Roman arch of
Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria
In Antiquity Algeria was known as
the Numidia
kingdom and its people were called Numidians.
The kingdom of Numidia had early relations with Carthaginians,
Romans
and Ancient
Greeks, the region was considered a fertile area, and Numidians were known
for their fine cavalry.
Massinissa the most famous king of Numidia
The indigenous peoples of northern Africa eventually coalesced into a
distinct native population, the Berbers.[17]
After 1000 BCE, the Carthaginians began establishing
settlements along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most
notably Numidia.
In 200
BCE, they were once again taken over, this time by the Roman Republic. When the Western Roman
Empire collapsed in 476 AD, Berbers became independent again in
many regions, while the Vandals took control
over other areas, where they remained until expelled by the Byzantine general Belisarius under the direction of Emperor
Justinian I. The Byzantine
Empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country
until the coming of the Arabs in the 8th
century.
Middle Ages
Berber
people controlled much of the Maghreb region
throughout the Middle Ages. The Berbers were made up of several tribes. The two
main branches were Botr and Barnès, who were themselves divided into tribes,
and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb
contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houaras, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama,Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes had
independence and made territorial decisions.[18]
Several
Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb, Sudan, Andalusia,
Italy, Mali, Niger,
Senegal, Egypt, and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarizing
the Berber dynasties: Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid , Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.[19]
Arrival of
Islam
Great Mosque of Algiers
The
Muslim Arab armies arrived in Algeria
in the mid-7th century, they conquered Algeria from its former Berber
rulers and the Byzantines. After the
fall of the Umayyad Arab Dynasty 751, numerous local
dynasties emerged. Amongst those dynasties were the Aghlabids, Almohads, Abdalwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Almoravids, and the Fatimids.
Having
converted the Kutama of Kabylie to its cause, the Shia Fatimids overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt, leaving
Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals. When the latter rebelled,
the Shia Fatimids sent in the Banu Hilal, a
populous Arab tribe, to weaken them.
Spanish
enclaves
See also: Oran#Spanish period, Spanish Empire, and History of Algeria
The
Spanish expansionist policy in North Africa began with the Catholic monarchs Isabella I of
Castile and Ferdinand II of
Aragon and their regent Cisneros, once the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula
was completed. Several towns and outposts on the Algerian coast were conquered
and occupied by the Spanish Empire:
Mers El Kébir (1505), Oran
(1509), Algiers (1510) and Bugia (1510). On 15 January 1510 the King of Algiers,
Samis El Felipe, was forced into submission to the king of Spain. King El
Felipe called for help from the corsairs Hayreddin
Barbarossa and Oruç Reis who
previously helped Andalusian Muslims
and Jews escape from Spanish oppression in 1492. In 1516, Oruç Reis
conquered Algiers with the support of 1,300
Turkish soldiers on board 16 Galliots and became
ruler, with Algiers joining the Ottoman Empire.
The Spanish fort
of Santa
Cruz, Oran.
The
Spaniards left Algiers in 1529, Bujia in 1554,
Mers El Kébir and Oran
in 1708. The Spanish returned in 1732 when the armada of the Duke of Montemar was victorious in the Battle
of Aïn-el-Turk; Spain
recaptured Oran
and Mers El Kébir. Both cities were held until 1792, when they were sold by
King Charles IV of Spain
to the Bey of
Algiers.
Ottoman rule
The Moorish ambassador of the Barbary States
to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I of
England.
Algeria was made part of the Ottoman Empire by Hayreddin
Barbarossa and his brother Aruj in 1517. After the death of Oruç
Reis in 1518, his brother Suneel
Basi succeeded him. The Sultan Selim I sent him 6000 soldiers and 2000 janissaries with which he liberated most of
the Algerian territory taken by the Spanish, from Annaba to Mostaganem. Further Spanish attacks led by Hugo of Moncada in 1519 were also pushed
back. In 1541 Charles V,
emperor of the Holy Roman Empire,
attacked Algiers with a convoy of 65 warships, 451 ships and 23000 men
including 2000 riders, but it was a total failure, and the Algerian leader
Hassan Agha became a national hero. Algiers
then became a great military power.
The
Ottomans established Algeria's
modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the Ottoman corsairs; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 17th century. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean
resulted in the First
(1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars
(1815) with the United
States. The pirates forced the people on the
ships they captured into slavery; when the
pirates attacked coastal villages in southern and Western
Europe the inhabitants were forced into the Arab slave trade.[20]
The
Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman
corsairs or the Marine Jihad (الجهاد البحري), were Muslim
pirates and privateers that operated from North Africa, from the time of the Crusades until the early 19th century.
Based in North African ports such as Tunis
in Tunisia, Tripoli in Libya, Algiers in Algeria, Salé and other ports in Morocco, they
preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic
shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha
Their stronghold was along the
stretch of northern Africa known as the Barbary
Coast (a medieval term for the Maghreb after its
Berber
inhabitants), but their predation was said to extend throughout the
Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard, and into the North
Atlantic as far north as Iceland and the United States. They often made raids, called Razzias, on
European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Algeria and
Morocco.[21][22]
According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1
million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. These slaves were captured mainly from
seaside villages in Italy,
Spain and Portugal,
and from farther places like France, England, Ireland, the Netherlands,
Germany, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia
and even Iceland,
India, Southeast
Asia and North America.
The impact of these attacks was devastating – France, England,
and Spain each lost
thousands of ships, and long stretches of coast in Spain
and Italy
were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. Pirate raids discouraged
settlement along the coast until the 19th century.
The most famous corsairs were the
Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard") brothers — Hayreddin (Hızır) and his older brother Oruç Reis
— who took control of Algiers in the early 16th century and turned it into the
centre of Mediterranean piracy and privateering for three centuries, as well as
establishing the Ottoman Empire's presence in North Africa which
lasted four centuries.
Other famous Ottoman
privateer-admirals included Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the
West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis,
Salih Reis,
Nemdil
Reis and Koca Murat Reis. Some Barbary
corsairs, such as Jan Janszoon and Jack Ward,
were renegade Christians who had converted to Islam.
Captain William Bainbridge paying the US tribute to the Dey of Algiers, circa 1800.
In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of Ischia, taking
4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the
entire population.[23]
In 1551, Turgut
Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000
and 6,000, sending them to Libya.
In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000
slaves.[24]
In 1555, Turgut Reis sacked Bastia, Corsica, taking 6000 prisoners.
In 1558, Barbary corsairs
captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the
inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as
slaves.[25]
In 1563, Turgut Reis landed on the shores of the province
of Granada, Spain, and
captured coastal settlements in the area, such as Almuñécar,
along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic
Islands, and in response many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches
were erected. The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera
became uninhabited.[26][27]
From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.[28]
In the 19th century, Barbary pirates would
capture ships and enslave the crew. Latterly American ships were attacked.
During this period, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean
powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their
vessels.[29]
One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen
in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to
1793.[30]
The cities of North
Africa were especially hard hit by the plague.
30,000–50,000 died in Algiers
in 1620–21, 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.[31]
[edit] French rule
Main article: French rule in Algeria
Constantine, Algeria 1840
On the pretext of a slight to
their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830.[32]
The conquest of Algeria
by the French was long and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of
violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline
by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.[33]
Between 1825 and 1847 50,000
French people emigrated to Algeria,[34]
but the conquest was slow because of intense resistance from such people as Emir
Abdelkader, Cheikh Mokrani[citation needed], Cheikh
Bouamama, the tribe of Ouled
Sid Cheikh, whose relationships with the French vacillated from
cooperation to resistance,[citation needed] Ahmed Bey
and Fatma N'Soumer. Indeed, the conquest was not
technically complete until the early 20th century when the last Tuareg were
conquered.
Oran,
Algeria.
Meanwhile, however, the French
made Algeria an integral
part of France.
Tens of thousands of settlers from France,
Spain, Italy, and Malta moved in to
farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupied significant parts of Algeria's
cities.
These settlers benefited from the
French government's confiscation of communal land and the application of modern
agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.[35]
Algeria's
social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted,[36]
while land development uprooted much of the population.
Starting from the end of the 19th
century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like Spanish
people in Oran),
as well as the native Algerian Jews (typically Mizrachi
and sometimes Sephardic
in origin), became full French citizens. Formally Algeria as a French territory was
member of European Communities from the founding of the European Community of Coal and Steel (ECSC) in
1952. Formal membership ended with independence in 1962.
After Algeria's 1962 independence, the
Europeans were called Pieds-Noirs ("black feet"). Some apocryphal
sources suggest the title comes from the black boots settlers wore, but the
term seems not to have been widely used until the time of the Algerian War of
Independence and it's more likely it started as an insult towards settlers
returning from Africa.[37]
In contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received
neither French citizenship nor the right to vote.
[edit] Post-independence
The Monument des Martyrs (Maqam a'chaheed) in Algiers
Cosmopolitan Algiers
In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN)
launched the Algerian War of Independence which was
a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war, newly
elected President Charles
de Gaulle, understanding that the age of empires was ending, held a plebiscite,
offering Algerians three options. In a famous speech (4 June 1958 in Algiers) de Gaulle proclaimed in front of a
vast crowd of Pieds-Noirs "Je vous ai compris" (I have understood
you). Most Pieds-noirs then believed that de Gaulle meant that Algeria would
remain French. The poll resulted in a landslide vote for complete independence
from France.
Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France and in
just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs,
as well as 81,000 Harkis
(pro-French Algerians serving in the French Army). In the days preceding the
bloody conflict, a group of Algerian Rebels opened fire on a marketplace in Oran killing numerous
innocent civilians, mostly women. It is estimated that somewhere between 50,000
and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria.[38]
Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed
Ben Bella. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne in 1965. Under Ben Bella the
government had already become increasingly socialist and
authoritarian,
and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However,
Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal
party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture
was collectivised, and a massive industrialization
drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were
nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973
oil crisis. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on
oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s
oil glut.
In foreign policy strained
relations with its western neighbor Morocco. Reasons for this include
Morocco's disputed claim to portions
of western Algeria (which led to the Sand War in
1963), Algeria's support for the Polisario
Front for its right to self-determination, and Algeria's hosting of Sahrawi
refugees within its borders in the city of Tindouf.
Within Algeria, dissent was rarely
tolerated, and the state's control over the media and
the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the
repressive constitution of 1976.
Boumédienne died in 1978, but the
rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid, was little more open. The state
took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread.
The modernization drive brought
considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions
underwent significant change as urbanization
increased. New industries emerged and agricultural employment was substantially
reduced. Education
was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate
from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the fertility
rate to 7–8 children per mother.
Therefore by 1980, there was a
very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to
relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest
movements developed: communists, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic
'intégristes'. Both groups protested against one-party
rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets
during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid
to concede the end of one-party rule.
[edit] Algerian
political events (1991–2002)
Main articles: Algerian Civil War and List of Algerian massacres of
the 1990s
Elections were planned to happen
in 1991. In
December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the
country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and
cancelled the second round. It forced then-president Bendjedid to resign and
banned all political parties based on religion (including the Islamic Salvation
Front). A political conflict ensued, leading Algeria into the violent Algerian Civil War.
More than 160,000 people were
killed between 17 January 1992 and June 2002. Most of the deaths were between
militants and government troops, but a great number of civilians were also
killed. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial
at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. Though many of these
massacres were carried out by Islamic extremists, the Algerian regime
supposedly also used the army and foreign mercenaries to conduct attacks on
men, women and children and then proceeded to blame the attacks upon various
Islamic groups within the country.[39]
Algiers
Elections resumed in 1995, and after
1998, the war waned. On 27 April 1999, after a series of short-term leaders
representing the military, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president,
was chosen by the army.[40]
[edit] Post war
By 2002, the main guerrilla
groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program,
though fighting and terrorism continues in some areas (See Islamic insurgency in
Algeria (2002–present)).
The issue of Amazigh
languages and identity increased in significance, particularly after the
extensive Kabyle protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of
local elections in Kabylie. The government responded with concessions including
naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.
Much of Algeria is now
recovering and developing into an emerging
economy. The high prices of oil and natural gas
are being used by the new government to improve the country's infrastructure
and especially improve industry and agricultural land. Recently, overseas
investment in Algeria
has increased.[citation needed]
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Algeria
Kabylie's hills
Topographic map
of Algeria
Most of the coastal area is
hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The
area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape,
which ends with the Saharan Atlas; further south, there is the Sahara desert.
The Ahaggar
Mountains (Arabic: جبال
هقار), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region
in central Sahara, southern Algeria.
They are located about 1,500 km (932 mi) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of Tamanghasset.
Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Tizi Ouzou
and Annaba are Algeria's main
cities.
[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Algeria
In this region even in winter,
midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear,
dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous
daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
The highest official temperature
was 50.6 °C (123.1 °F) at In Salah.[41]
Rainfall is fairly abundant along
the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the
amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the
northern part of eastern Algeria,
where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.
Farther inland, the rainfall is
less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and
north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry
with them a general increase in precipitation from September through December,
a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall
during the summer months. Algeria
also has ergs, or sand dunes between mountains, which in the
summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 110 °F (43.3 °C).
Algeria (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā’ir, Berber: Dzayer, French: Algérie), officially the People's
Democratic Republic of Algeria (also formally referred to as the Democratic
and Popular Republic of Algeria),[10][11][12][13] is a country in North Africa. In terms of land area, it is
the largest country on the Mediterranean Sea, the second largest on
the African continent[14] after Sudan,
and the eleventh-largest country in the world.[15]
Algeria
is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by
Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali,
in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost
2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated
population of about 35.7 million (2010).[16] The capital of Algeria is Algiers.
Algeria is a member of the Arab League, United Nations, African Union, and OPEC.
It is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
Etymology
The name of the country is
derived from the city of Algiers. A possible
etymology links the city name to الجزائر Al-jazā’ir, a truncated form of the city's older name of جزائر بني
مازغان jazā’ir banī mazghanā, the Arabic for "the
islands of Mazghanna", as used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.
In classical times northern Algeria was known as Numidia, which included parts of modern day
western Tunisia and eastern Morocco.
History
Main article: History of Algeria
Ancient
history
Roman arch of
Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria
In Antiquity Algeria was known as
the Numidia
kingdom and its people were called Numidians.
The kingdom of Numidia had early relations with Carthaginians,
Romans
and Ancient
Greeks, the region was considered a fertile area, and Numidians were known
for their fine cavalry.
Massinissa the most famous king of Numidia
The indigenous peoples of northern Africa eventually coalesced into a
distinct native population, the Berbers.[17]
After 1000 BCE, the Carthaginians began establishing
settlements along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most
notably Numidia.
In 200
BCE, they were once again taken over, this time by the Roman Republic. When the Western Roman
Empire collapsed in 476 AD, Berbers became independent again in
many regions, while the Vandals took control
over other areas, where they remained until expelled by the Byzantine general Belisarius under the direction of Emperor
Justinian I. The Byzantine
Empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country
until the coming of the Arabs in the 8th
century.
Middle Ages
Berber
people controlled much of the Maghreb region
throughout the Middle Ages. The Berbers were made up of several tribes. The two
main branches were Botr and Barnès, who were themselves divided into tribes,
and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb
contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houaras, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama,Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes had
independence and made territorial decisions.[18]
Several
Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb, Sudan, Andalusia,
Italy, Mali, Niger,
Senegal, Egypt, and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarizing
the Berber dynasties: Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid , Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.[19]
Arrival of
Islam
Great Mosque of Algiers
The
Muslim Arab armies arrived in Algeria
in the mid-7th century, they conquered Algeria from its former Berber
rulers and the Byzantines. After the
fall of the Umayyad Arab Dynasty 751, numerous local
dynasties emerged. Amongst those dynasties were the Aghlabids, Almohads, Abdalwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Almoravids, and the Fatimids.
Having
converted the Kutama of Kabylie to its cause, the Shia Fatimids overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt, leaving
Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals. When the latter rebelled,
the Shia Fatimids sent in the Banu Hilal, a
populous Arab tribe, to weaken them.
Spanish
enclaves
See also: Oran#Spanish period, Spanish Empire, and History of Algeria
The
Spanish expansionist policy in North Africa began with the Catholic monarchs Isabella I of
Castile and Ferdinand II of
Aragon and their regent Cisneros, once the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula
was completed. Several towns and outposts on the Algerian coast were conquered
and occupied by the Spanish Empire:
Mers El Kébir (1505), Oran
(1509), Algiers (1510) and Bugia (1510). On 15 January 1510 the King of Algiers,
Samis El Felipe, was forced into submission to the king of Spain. King El
Felipe called for help from the corsairs Hayreddin
Barbarossa and Oruç Reis who
previously helped Andalusian Muslims
and Jews escape from Spanish oppression in 1492. In 1516, Oruç Reis
conquered Algiers with the support of 1,300
Turkish soldiers on board 16 Galliots and became
ruler, with Algiers joining the Ottoman Empire.
The Spanish fort
of Santa
Cruz, Oran.
The
Spaniards left Algiers in 1529, Bujia in 1554,
Mers El Kébir and Oran
in 1708. The Spanish returned in 1732 when the armada of the Duke of Montemar was victorious in the Battle
of Aïn-el-Turk; Spain
recaptured Oran
and Mers El Kébir. Both cities were held until 1792, when they were sold by
King Charles IV of Spain
to the Bey of
Algiers.
Ottoman rule
The Moorish ambassador of the Barbary States
to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I of
England.
Algeria was made part of the Ottoman Empire by Hayreddin
Barbarossa and his brother Aruj in 1517. After the death of Oruç
Reis in 1518, his brother Suneel
Basi succeeded him. The Sultan Selim I sent him 6000 soldiers and 2000 janissaries with which he liberated most of
the Algerian territory taken by the Spanish, from Annaba to Mostaganem. Further Spanish attacks led by Hugo of Moncada in 1519 were also pushed
back. In 1541 Charles V,
emperor of the Holy Roman Empire,
attacked Algiers with a convoy of 65 warships, 451 ships and 23000 men
including 2000 riders, but it was a total failure, and the Algerian leader
Hassan Agha became a national hero. Algiers
then became a great military power.
The
Ottomans established Algeria's
modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the Ottoman corsairs; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 17th century. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean
resulted in the First
(1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars
(1815) with the United
States. The pirates forced the people on the
ships they captured into slavery; when the
pirates attacked coastal villages in southern and Western
Europe the inhabitants were forced into the Arab slave trade.[20]
The
Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman
corsairs or the Marine Jihad (الجهاد البحري), were Muslim
pirates and privateers that operated from North Africa, from the time of the Crusades until the early 19th century.
Based in North African ports such as Tunis
in Tunisia, Tripoli in Libya, Algiers in Algeria, Salé and other ports in Morocco, they
preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic
shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha
Their stronghold was along the
stretch of northern Africa known as the Barbary
Coast (a medieval term for the Maghreb after its
Berber
inhabitants), but their predation was said to extend throughout the
Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard, and into the North
Atlantic as far north as Iceland and the United States. They often made raids, called Razzias, on
European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in places such as Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Algeria and
Morocco.[21][22]
According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1
million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. These slaves were captured mainly from
seaside villages in Italy,
Spain and Portugal,
and from farther places like France, England, Ireland, the Netherlands,
Germany, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia
and even Iceland,
India, Southeast
Asia and North America.
The impact of these attacks was devastating – France, England,
and Spain each lost
thousands of ships, and long stretches of coast in Spain
and Italy
were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. Pirate raids discouraged
settlement along the coast until the 19th century.
The most famous corsairs were the
Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard") brothers — Hayreddin (Hızır) and his older brother Oruç Reis
— who took control of Algiers in the early 16th century and turned it into the
centre of Mediterranean piracy and privateering for three centuries, as well as
establishing the Ottoman Empire's presence in North Africa which
lasted four centuries.
Other famous Ottoman
privateer-admirals included Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the
West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis,
Salih Reis,
Nemdil
Reis and Koca Murat Reis. Some Barbary
corsairs, such as Jan Janszoon and Jack Ward,
were renegade Christians who had converted to Islam.
Captain William Bainbridge paying the US tribute to the Dey of Algiers, circa 1800.
In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of Ischia, taking
4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the
entire population.[23]
In 1551, Turgut
Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000
and 6,000, sending them to Libya.
In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000
slaves.[24]
In 1555, Turgut Reis sacked Bastia, Corsica, taking 6000 prisoners.
In 1558, Barbary corsairs
captured the town of Ciutadella (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the
inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as
slaves.[25]
In 1563, Turgut Reis landed on the shores of the province
of Granada, Spain, and
captured coastal settlements in the area, such as Almuñécar,
along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic
Islands, and in response many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches
were erected. The threat was so severe that the island of Formentera
became uninhabited.[26][27]
From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.[28]
In the 19th century, Barbary pirates would
capture ships and enslave the crew. Latterly American ships were attacked.
During this period, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean
powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their
vessels.[29]
One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen
in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to
1793.[30]
The cities of North
Africa were especially hard hit by the plague.
30,000–50,000 died in Algiers
in 1620–21, 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.[31]
[edit] French rule
Main article: French rule in Algeria
Constantine, Algeria 1840
On the pretext of a slight to
their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830.[32]
The conquest of Algeria
by the French was long and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of
violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline
by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.[33]
Between 1825 and 1847 50,000
French people emigrated to Algeria,[34]
but the conquest was slow because of intense resistance from such people as Emir
Abdelkader, Cheikh Mokrani[citation needed], Cheikh
Bouamama, the tribe of Ouled
Sid Cheikh, whose relationships with the French vacillated from
cooperation to resistance,[citation needed] Ahmed Bey
and Fatma N'Soumer. Indeed, the conquest was not
technically complete until the early 20th century when the last Tuareg were
conquered.
Oran,
Algeria.
Meanwhile, however, the French
made Algeria an integral
part of France.
Tens of thousands of settlers from France,
Spain, Italy, and Malta moved in to
farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupied significant parts of Algeria's
cities.
These settlers benefited from the
French government's confiscation of communal land and the application of modern
agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.[35]
Algeria's
social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted,[36]
while land development uprooted much of the population.
Starting from the end of the 19th
century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like Spanish
people in Oran),
as well as the native Algerian Jews (typically Mizrachi
and sometimes Sephardic
in origin), became full French citizens. Formally Algeria as a French territory was
member of European Communities from the founding of the European Community of Coal and Steel (ECSC) in
1952. Formal membership ended with independence in 1962.
After Algeria's 1962 independence, the
Europeans were called Pieds-Noirs ("black feet"). Some apocryphal
sources suggest the title comes from the black boots settlers wore, but the
term seems not to have been widely used until the time of the Algerian War of
Independence and it's more likely it started as an insult towards settlers
returning from Africa.[37]
In contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received
neither French citizenship nor the right to vote.
[edit] Post-independence
The Monument des Martyrs (Maqam a'chaheed) in Algiers
Cosmopolitan Algiers
In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN)
launched the Algerian War of Independence which was
a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war, newly
elected President Charles
de Gaulle, understanding that the age of empires was ending, held a plebiscite,
offering Algerians three options. In a famous speech (4 June 1958 in Algiers) de Gaulle proclaimed in front of a
vast crowd of Pieds-Noirs "Je vous ai compris" (I have understood
you). Most Pieds-noirs then believed that de Gaulle meant that Algeria would
remain French. The poll resulted in a landslide vote for complete independence
from France.
Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France and in
just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs,
as well as 81,000 Harkis
(pro-French Algerians serving in the French Army). In the days preceding the
bloody conflict, a group of Algerian Rebels opened fire on a marketplace in Oran killing numerous
innocent civilians, mostly women. It is estimated that somewhere between 50,000
and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria.[38]
Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed
Ben Bella. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne in 1965. Under Ben Bella the
government had already become increasingly socialist and
authoritarian,
and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However,
Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal
party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture
was collectivised, and a massive industrialization
drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were
nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973
oil crisis. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on
oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s
oil glut.
In foreign policy strained
relations with its western neighbor Morocco. Reasons for this include
Morocco's disputed claim to portions
of western Algeria (which led to the Sand War in
1963), Algeria's support for the Polisario
Front for its right to self-determination, and Algeria's hosting of Sahrawi
refugees within its borders in the city of Tindouf.
Within Algeria, dissent was rarely
tolerated, and the state's control over the media and
the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the
repressive constitution of 1976.
Boumédienne died in 1978, but the
rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid, was little more open. The state
took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread.
The modernization drive brought
considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions
underwent significant change as urbanization
increased. New industries emerged and agricultural employment was substantially
reduced. Education
was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate
from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the fertility
rate to 7–8 children per mother.
Therefore by 1980, there was a
very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to
relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest
movements developed: communists, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic
'intégristes'. Both groups protested against one-party
rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets
during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid
to concede the end of one-party rule.
[edit] Algerian
political events (1991–2002)
Main articles: Algerian Civil War and List of Algerian massacres of
the 1990s
Elections were planned to happen
in 1991. In
December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the
country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and
cancelled the second round. It forced then-president Bendjedid to resign and
banned all political parties based on religion (including the Islamic Salvation
Front). A political conflict ensued, leading Algeria into the violent Algerian Civil War.
More than 160,000 people were
killed between 17 January 1992 and June 2002. Most of the deaths were between
militants and government troops, but a great number of civilians were also
killed. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial
at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. Though many of these
massacres were carried out by Islamic extremists, the Algerian regime
supposedly also used the army and foreign mercenaries to conduct attacks on
men, women and children and then proceeded to blame the attacks upon various
Islamic groups within the country.[39]
Algiers
Elections resumed in 1995, and after
1998, the war waned. On 27 April 1999, after a series of short-term leaders
representing the military, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president,
was chosen by the army.[40]
[edit] Post war
By 2002, the main guerrilla
groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program,
though fighting and terrorism continues in some areas (See Islamic insurgency in
Algeria (2002–present)).
The issue of Amazigh
languages and identity increased in significance, particularly after the
extensive Kabyle protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of
local elections in Kabylie. The government responded with concessions including
naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.
Much of Algeria is now
recovering and developing into an emerging
economy. The high prices of oil and natural gas
are being used by the new government to improve the country's infrastructure
and especially improve industry and agricultural land. Recently, overseas
investment in Algeria
has increased.[citation needed]
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Algeria
| Geography of Algeria | |
| Coastline | 998 km (620 mi)[14] |
| Bordering | Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, SADR, Mauritania, |
| | |
Kabylie's hills
Topographic map
of Algeria
Most of the coastal area is
hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The
area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape,
which ends with the Saharan Atlas; further south, there is the Sahara desert.
The Ahaggar
Mountains (Arabic: جبال
هقار), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region
in central Sahara, southern Algeria.
They are located about 1,500 km (932 mi) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of Tamanghasset.
Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Tizi Ouzou
and Annaba are Algeria's main
cities.
[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Algeria
In this region even in winter,
midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear,
dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous
daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
The highest official temperature
was 50.6 °C (123.1 °F) at In Salah.[41]
Rainfall is fairly abundant along
the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the
amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the
northern part of eastern Algeria,
where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.
Farther inland, the rainfall is
less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and
north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry
with them a general increase in precipitation from September through December,
a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall
during the summer months. Algeria
also has ergs, or sand dunes between mountains, which in the
summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 110 °F (43.3 °C).
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